Japanese universities

Abstract Online education in Japanese universities expanded rapidly during the COVID-19 pandemic, exposing both the genuine value of flexible learning formats and the structural conditions required to make them effective. While students consistently appreciated the temporal and spatial autonomy of online study, research has identified persistent challenges including isolation, physical and psychological fatigue, assignment overload, declining motivation, and inequities in digital access and ICT literacy. This paper presents a narrative synthesis of recent empirical studies on online learning in Japanese higher education, arguing that student success is associated with the coordinated integration of three interdependent dimensions. Drawing on national surveys, institutional reports, and case-based research, the paper proposes the Flexibility–Structure–Support (FSS) Model, in which flexibility without adequate pedagogical structure may increase the risk of disengagement, while structure without sufficient institutional support may contribute to uneven and inequitable learning experiences. Effective instructional design—integrating active learning, motivating assignments, meaningful feedback, and blended formats—must be accompanied by investment in infrastructure, systematic faculty development, and explicit support for student self-regulated learning. Implications for course design, program coordination, and institutional policy are discussed, along with limitations and directions for future research.