sport psychology

Objective Running applications provide feedback, goal setting, rewards, and social interaction, yet app use is often discussed as though it directly improves objective performance. This study tested a sport psychology model linking running-app engagement to perceived training gains via perceived motivational affordances and runner motivation. Methods A quantitative, cross-sectional online survey was completed by 206 adult running-app users. Twenty-five five-point indicators were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling with 5,000 bootstrap resamples. A two-step assessment examined the measurement model and then the structural model, including direct, specific indirect, and total effects. Common-method considerations, construct-level cross-validated prediction, and three sensitivity analyses were also evaluated. Results Engagement was positively associated with motivational affordances (β = 0.707), motivation (β = 0.401), and perceived training gains (β = 0.401). Motivational affordances were positively associated with motivation (β = 0.496), and motivation was positively associated with perceived training gains (β = 0.499); all 95% bootstrap confidence intervals excluded zero. The indirect effect of engagement on perceived training gains through motivation was β = 0.200, while the sequential engagement–affordances–motivation–gains indirect effect was β = 0.175. The model explained 68.8% of the variance in motivation and 71.1% of the variance in perceived training gains. Conclusion Runners who integrated an app more strongly into their training also reported greater perceived motivational value, motivation, and training gains. Positive statistical indirect associations linked engagement to perceived training gains via runner motivation and the sequentially specified affordance–motivation route. Given the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported perceived gains, these findings support an associational rather than causal interpretation.

Introduction This study treats adolescent athletes' self-efficacy as a dynamic process rather than a fixed quantity, asking how its fluctuations arise in online social settings and how that volatility shapes training engagement. Methods We recruited a stratified sample of 320 youth athletes across sport discipline, competitive tier, and sex, and combined ecological momentary assessment with weekly follow-up over 8 consecutive weeks, using instruments released under open licenses and open-source software throughout. Two dispersion indices, the intraindividual standard deviation and the root mean square of successive differences, summarized fluctuation at the person level, while absolute occasion-to-occasion change indexed momentary instability at the event level. We fitted multilevel linear models, a two-level dynamic structural equation model, latent growth curve models, and multilevel structural equation models, with each path labeled by its level of analysis. Results Momentary self-efficacy showed genuine within-person temporal dependence rather than independent scatter, and its trajectory was phase-linked to the competitive calendar and unevenly distributed across individuals. Between persons, fluctuation amplitude tracked the intensity of negatively valenced comparison rather than the sheer volume of feedback, and comparison orientation amplified that association on the negative arm alone. Within persons, negative comparison enlarged momentary instability both immediately and at a one-occasion lag, whereas positive signals steadied confidence only briefly. Amplitude was negatively associated with all three engagement facets beyond mean efficacy, most strongly for absorption, although a formal equality test separated absorption from dedication but not vigor. The direct reach of negative comparison into engagement proved facet-specific: vigor and absorption were affected, dedication was not, so the facet-by-facet hypothesis holds only in part. Sensitivity analyses adding competitive-calendar phase, splitting the series by season phase, partialling the person mean and the person-specific autoregression out of the amplitude index, entering competitive tier as a covariate, and checking participant-coded valence against automated sentiment scoring left the pattern intact. Discussion The findings extend social cognitive theory's vicarious and persuasive sources into a temporally dense digital regime and point toward protective coaching and self-regulation strategies.

Psychological Skills Training (PST) is widely recognized as part of athlete preparation and performance development, but less is known about how PST is learned, supported, delivered, and experienced in applied sport settings. This study compared coach and athlete perspectives on PST, with particular attention to familiarity, learning pathways, support structures, delivery, perceived effectiveness, and motivation for further development. A cross-sectional online survey was completed by 49 coaches and 94 athletes from a range of sports, with experience from two years or fewer to over ten years and from regional to international or elite level. Comparative analyses were restricted to conceptually similar items across the two surveys and were interpreted descriptively rather than causally. Coaches reported significantly greater familiarity with PST, higher levels of self-directed learning, stronger motivation to continue developing PST-related knowledge, and greater perceived importance of hands-on practice. Athletes reported significantly greater satisfaction with perceived current PST delivery, while no significant group difference emerged in perceived effectiveness of current methods. Exploratory subgroup analyses indicated that motivation to continue developing PST knowledge differed across competitive levels and was highest at international level. Among coaches, perceived effectiveness also differed by the performance level of the athletes they coached. These findings suggest that demand for further development may be particularly evident in higher-performance contexts. The clearest descriptive contrast concerned learning pathways. Athletes most commonly reported first learning about PST through their coach, whereas coaches most commonly reported first learning through online resources, workshops, and books or articles. Both groups also reported limited input from sport psychologists. These findings suggest that PST knowledge in applied sport may move through an uneven chain of transmission, with coaches acting as the principal route through which athletes encounter PST, while coaches themselves often learn through informal and weakly supported routes. All findings reflect coach- and athlete-reported perceptions rather than objectively assessed performance outcomes and should be interpreted with reference to the study’s descriptive design, non-validated survey instruments, and modest, unevenly distributed subgroup sizes. The study highlights the need to examine not only whether PST is valued, but how it is learned, supported, and translated into practice across the sporting system.

آموزش مهارت‌های روان‌شناختی (PST) به عنوان بخشی از آمادگی و توسعه عملکرد ورزشکاران به طور گسترده‌ای شناخته شده است، اما اطلاعات کمتری درباره نحوه یادگیری، حمایت، ارائه و تجربه PST در محیط‌های ورزشی کاربردی وجود دارد. این مطالعه دیدگاه‌های مربیان و ورزشکاران درباره PST را با تمرکز ویژه بر آشنایی، مسیرهای یادگیری، ساختارهای حمایتی، نحوه ارائه، اثربخشی ادراک‌شده و انگیزه برای توسعه بیشتر مقایسه کرد. یک پرسشنامه آنلاین مقطعی توسط ۴۹ مربی و ۹۴ ورزشکار از رشته‌های مختلف ورزشی، با سابقه‌ای از دو سال یا کمتر تا بیش از ده سال و از سطح منطقه‌ای تا بین‌المللی یا نخبه، تکمیل شد. تحلیل‌های مقایسه‌ای به موارد مفهومی مشابه در دو پرسشنامه محدود شد و به صورت توصیفی و نه علّی تفسیر گردید. مربیان آشنایی قابل توجه بیشتری با PST، سطوح بالاتر یادگیری خودراهبر، انگیزه قوی‌تر برای ادامه توسعه دانش مرتبط با PST و اهمیت ادراک‌شده بیشتری برای تمرین عملی گزارش کردند. ورزشکاران رضایت قابل توجه بیشتری از نحوه ارائه فعلی PST ابراز داشتند، در حالی که تفاوت معناداری بین گروه‌ها در اثربخشی ادراک‌شده روش‌های فعلی مشاهده نشد. تحلیل‌های اکتشافی زیرگروه‌ها نشان داد که انگیزه برای ادامه توسعه دانش PST در سطوح رقابتی مختلف متفاوت است و در سطح بین‌المللی بیشترین مقدار را دارد. در میان مربیان، اثربخشی ادراک‌شده نیز بر اساس سطح عملکرد ورزشکارانی که آموزش می‌دهند متفاوت بود. این یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که تقاضا برای توسعه بیشتر، به ویژه در زمینه‌های با عملکرد بالاتر، مشهودتر است. واضح‌ترین تفاوت توصیفی مربوط به مسیرهای یادگیری بود. ورزشکاران عمدتاً گزارش کردند که اولین بار از طریق مربی خود با PST آشنا شده‌اند، در حالی که مربیان عمدتاً اولین بار از طریق منابع آنلاین، کارگاه‌ها و کتاب‌ها یا مقالات با آن آشنا شده‌اند. هر دو گروه همچنین ورودی محدودی از روان‌شناسان ورزشی گزارش کردند. این یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که دانش PST در ورزش کاربردی ممکن است از طریق زنجیره‌ای نامتوازن منتقل شود، به طوری که مربیان به عنوان مسیر اصلی آشنایی ورزشکاران با PST عمل می‌کنند، در حالی که خود مربیان اغلب از طریق مسیرهای غیررسمی و با حمایت ضعیف یاد می‌گیرند. همه یافته‌ها بازتاب ادراکات گزارش‌شده توسط مربیان و ورزشکاران است و نه نتایج عملکردی که به طور عینی ارزیابی شده باشد و باید با توجه به طراحی توصیفی مطالعه، ابزارهای پرسشنامه‌ای غیرمعتبر و اندازه‌های زیرگروه نسبتاً کم و نامتوازن تفسیر شود. این مطالعه بر ضرورت بررسی نه تنها ارزشمندی PST، بلکه نحوه یادگیری، حمایت و ترجمه آن به عمل در سراسر نظام ورزشی تأکید می‌کند.

Previous research highlighted the prospect of releasing players was a stressor for academy coaches, but academy staff members’ perspectives on the release process remain unexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to explore academy staff members’ experiences and perspectives of the release process from professional football academies. Semi-structured interviews (duration: 59–114 min; M ± SD = 85 ± 14 min) were conducted with 18 staff members (coaching staff, n = 8; support staff, n = 10) currently working in professional football club academies in the UK. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, with themes developed from the interviews relating to: “realistically holding on to the dream in the academy system,” “the complexities of making and communicating decisions in the release process,” “the contract meeting -‘it’s the worst part of the job’” and “staff roles and dynamics in the aftercare process.” Staff highlighted a lack of good practice and need for guidelines around conducting contract meetings. Participants outlined potential issues with aftercare provided for released players and offered possible solutions, such as a centralized aftercare support program. Good practice recommendations have been provided with regards to the release process, including how to deliver the release news within contract meetings and aftercare provision. These recommendations can assist the release strategies of professional football club academies and organizations.

پژوهش‌های پیشین نشان داده‌اند که احتمال رهایی بازیکنان، یکی از عوامل استرس‌زا برای مربیان آکادمی‌ها است، اما دیدگاه‌های اعضای کادر آکادمی درباره فرایند رهایی همچنان ناشناخته باقی مانده است. بنابراین، هدف این مطالعه بررسی تجارب و دیدگاه‌های اعضای کادر آکادمی نسبت به فرایند رهایی از آکادمی‌های فوتبال حرفه‌ای بود. مصاحبه‌های نیمه‌ساختاریافته (مدت زمان: ۵۹ تا ۱۱۴ دقیقه؛ میانگین ± انحراف معیار = ۸۵ ± ۱۴ دقیقه) با ۱۸ نفر از اعضای کادر (کادر مربیگری، n = 8؛ کادر پشتیبانی، n = 10) که در حال حاضر در آکادمی‌های باشگاه‌های فوتبال حرفه‌ای در بریتانیا فعالیت می‌کنند، انجام شد. داده‌ها با استفاده از تحلیل تماتیک بازتابی مورد تجزیه‌و‌تحلیل قرار گرفت و تم‌هایی که از مصاحبه‌ها استخراج شد شامل: «حفظ واقع‌بینانه رؤیا در نظام آکادمی»، «پیچیدگی‌های اتخاذ و ابلاغ تصمیمات در فرایند رهایی»، «جلسه قرارداد - 'بدترین بخش کار است'» و «نقش‌ها و پویایی‌های کادر در فرایند مراقبت پس از رهایی» بود. اعضای کادر به کمبود رویه‌های مناسب و نیاز به دستورالعمل‌هایی برای برگزاری جلسات قرارداد اشاره کردند. شرکت‌کنندگان به مسائل احتمالی در مراقبت پس از رهایی بازیکنان اشاره کردند و راه‌حل‌هایی مانند برنامه متمرکز حمایت پس از رهایی را پیشنهاد دادند. توصیه‌هایی برای بهبود رویه‌های رهایی، از جمله نحوه اعلام خبر رهایی در جلسات قرارداد و ارائه مراقبت پس از رهایی، ارائه شده است. این توصیه‌ها می‌تواند به راهبردهای رهایی آکادمی‌ها و سازمان‌های فوتبال حرفه‌ای کمک کند.