guilt

Contemporary international relations are deeply influenced by historical reflection, and how a state deals with its legacy directly affects its international image and identity. Germany’s postwar reckoning with the Second World War serves as a paradigmatic case, where the construction of cultural memory reveals an evolution of historical consciousness shaped largely by official initiatives. Cultural memory, understood as the transmission of historical memory through cultural symbols, in the German context refers specifically to the ongoing critical engagement with Nazi crimes and the Holocaust. This memory is not static but has undergone a tortuous development from initial rejection and silence to active assumption of responsibility, eventually becoming a core component of German national identity. Memorial days, as state-sponsored vehicles, function both as pivot points for historical reflection and as witnesses to the transformation of cultural memory. Focusing on the commemorative date of 8 May (the end of the war in Europe), this paper analyzes the dynamic nature of German cultural memory. The findings show that in the early postwar period, German society resisted the notion of “collective guilt,” and under Adenauer the government maintained a conservative stance. Brandt’s “Warsaw Genuflection” marked a turn toward active remorse. Under Kohl, the concept of a “spiritual‑moral turnaround” was advanced, and the Nazi past gradually became “normalized” in public discourse. Since the beginning of the 21st century, Holocaust memory has been integrated more deeply into national identity, with an increasingly ritualized and educational focus on 8 May. Germany’s experience demonstrates that confronting historical truth is essential for building a peaceful identity. Its path toward reconciliation through cultural memory offers a reference for the international community, promoting a shared commitment to learning from history and cherishing peace.

Self-harm represents a serious mental health concern in which emotional experiences play a significant role in both its onset and maintenance. This exploratory study examined which emotions were most frequently reported before and after self-harm, how selected emotions changed following self-harm, and how emotional experiences were associated with specific forms of self-harm and demographic factors (gender, religious identification). The sample comprised of 158 university students, of whom 130 reported a history of self-harming behavior and were included in analyses of emotional experiences. Data were collected using a modified Self-Harm Inventory questionnaire and measures assessing the occurrence of emotions before and after self-harm. Anger, feelings of failure, and sadness were the most frequently reported emotions preceding self-harm, whereas sadness, relief, disappointment, guilt, and shame were the most frequently reported emotions following self-harm. The reported frequency of anger, guilt, and sadness decreased following self-harm, whereas negative emotions remained prominent after the behavior. After Benjamini–Hochberg correction for multiple comparisons, religious identification remained negatively associated with self-harm frequency and with the reported frequency of several emotions. Gender was not significantly associated with the examined variables, although this finding should be interpreted cautiously given the gender imbalance and limited sample size. After correction, selected associations between emotions and specific forms of self-harm remained significant, including associations of anger with hitting oneself, disgust with starving oneself, hatred with self-defeating thoughts, guilt following laxative misuse, and changes in anger with hitting oneself and intentionally worsening medical situations. Overall, the findings indicate selective associations between emotional experiences and self-harming behavior while underscoring the need for longitudinal and event-level research to clarify their temporal and causal dynamics.

This study addresses the process of symbolic grief experienced by mothers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), considering psychological vulnerability and resilience in the face of the deconstruction of the image of the idealized child. It is based on the understanding that an ASD diagnosis may disrupt expectations developed throughout pregnancy regarding the child’s development and future, thereby affecting the maternal experience. The general objective is to analyze the process of symbolic grief experienced by mothers of children with ASD, integrating psychological vulnerability, resilience, and support networks. Specifically, the study seeks to identify factors of psychological vulnerability resulting from maternal overload; discuss the impact of symbolic grief on atypical motherhood; and evaluate the role of support networks and public policies in promoting these women’s mental health. This is a narrative literature review of a qualitative, descriptive, and exploratory nature, conducted using the BVS-Psi and SciELO databases. The results indicate that a diagnosis may trigger psychological distress, frustration, guilt, fear, and emotional overload, contributing to social isolation and mental health problems. However, psychological support, family and community assistance as part of a support network, and effective public policies contribute to strengthening resilience and reframing the experience of atypical motherhood. It is concluded that understanding the impact of symbolic grief on these mothers is essential to broadening the perspective of psychology and public policies regarding their socio-emotional needs, promoting comprehensive care and strengthening mental health.

Prevention of sexual reoffending is the primary goal of forensic treatment for individuals with a history of sexual offenses. Risk assessment and case formulation form the foundation of cognitive behavioral therapy informed forensic treatment. Integrating both into practice, however, is not always straightforward. This case study explores how risk assessment and case formulation can be integrated using the network-based model of risk of sexual reoffending (NBM-RSR, hereafter referred to as the NBM-RSR case formulation). Peter's NBM-RSR case formulation illustrates the contribution of his own experience of sexual abuse to the development of dynamic risk factors. The interconnections between these factors provide insight into their role in his risk of sexual reoffending. Peter's risk of reoffending appears to emerge from two clusters of dynamic risk factors: one involving emotional loneliness, feelings of shame and guilt, and the other consisting of exhibitionistic fantasies, sex as a coping mechanism, and contact with unknown women and girls. The need for validation and the use of sex as a coping mechanism form the link between these two networks. This case study demonstrates that the NBM-RSR case formulation provides an explanatory model for the onset and maintenance of sexual offending. It provides practical guidance for forensic treatment and helps formulate and prioritize treatment goals through analyzing how dynamic risk factors interconnect.

پیشگیری از تکرار جرایم جنسی هدف اصلی درمان‌های قانونی برای افرادی با سابقه جرایم جنسی است. ارزیابی خطر و فرمول‌بندی موردی، بنیان درمان شناختی-رفتاری مبتنی بر شواهد در حوزه قانونی را تشکیل می‌دهند. با این حال، ادغام این دو در عمل همواره ساده نیست. این مطالعه موردی بررسی می‌کند که چگونه می‌توان ارزیابی خطر و فرمول‌بندی موردی را با استفاده از مدل شبکه‌ای خطر تکرار جرم جنسی (NBM-RSR، که از این پس به عنوان فرمول‌بندی موردی NBM-RSR نامیده می‌شود) تلفیق کرد. فرمول‌بندی موردی NBM-RSR برای Peter نشان می‌دهد که تجربه شخصی او از سوءاستفاده جنسی چگونه در شکل‌گیری عوامل خطر پویای او نقش داشته است. ارتباطات میان این عوامل، بینشی درباره نقش آن‌ها در خطر تکرار جرم جنسی توسط او فراهم می‌کند. به نظر می‌رسد خطر تکرار جرم در Peter از دو خوشه عوامل خطر پویای زیر ناشی می‌شود: یکی شامل تنهایی عاطفی، احساس شرم و گناه، و دیگری متشکل از خیال‌پردازی‌های نمایشی، استفاده از رابطه جنسی به عنوان سازوکار مقابله‌ای، و تماس با زنان و دختران ناشناس. نیاز به تأیید و استفاده از رابطه جنسی به عنوان سازوکار مقابله‌ای، پیوند میان این دو شبکه را تشکیل می‌دهد. این مطالعه موردی نشان می‌دهد که فرمول‌بندی موردی NBM-RSR یک مدل تبیینی برای شروع و تداوم جرایم جنسی ارائه می‌دهد. این مدل راهنمای عملی برای درمان قانونی فراهم می‌کند و با تحلیل نحوه ارتباط عوامل خطر پویا، به تدوین و اولویت‌بندی اهداف درمانی کمک می‌کند.