Tanzania

This study investigated the challenges facing head teachers in providing leadership support for the implementation of the Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC) in public primary schools in Muleba District, Tanzania. The study was guided by one specific objective: to identify the challenges faced by head teachers in providing leadership support for CBC implementation. Grounded in Hallinger and Murphy's (1985) Instructional Leadership Theory, the study adopted a pragmatic paradigm with a convergent parallel mixed-methods design. The target population comprised 2,166 individuals from 237 public primary schools. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from 112 respondents (100 classroom teachers and 12 heads of schools), semi-structured interviews with head teachers and one School Quality Assurance Officer, and document review. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics through SPSS Version 22, while qualitative data were analysed thematically following Braun and Clarke's (2006) framework. The findings revealed seven interconnected challenges: inadequate CBC training for head teachers themselves (84.8%), inadequate funding preventing leadership support (81.3%), heavy administrative workloads (76.8%), unclear government support (76.8%), financial constraints generally (67.9%), overcrowded classrooms (64.3%), and teacher resistance to CBC changes (52.7%). The study concluded that head teachers' effectiveness in leading CBC implementation is systematically undermined by systemic factors beyond their control. The study recommends mandatory CBC training for head teachers, reduction of administrative workloads, increased capitation grants with CBC-specific allocations, clear national implementation guidelines, and investment in school infrastructure.

This study examined how classroom observation by school leaders influenced teachers’ effectiveness in lesson preparation and presentation in public secondary schools in Kyerwa District Council, Kagera, Tanzania. The study was guided by the pragmatist paradigm and employed a mixed-methods approach using a convergent parallel research design. A sample of 87 respondents was selected through stratified random, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques. The sample size was determined using Yamane’s (1967) formula (n=N/[1+N(e)^2]). Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires and classroom observation checklists, while qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using frequencies, percentages, means, correlation, and regression analysis, whereas qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings indicated that classroom observation by school leaders contributed to teachers’ effectiveness in lesson preparation and presentation through professional feedback, identification of instructional weaknesses, guidance, and follow-up support. The findings further showed that regular and constructive classroom observation enhanced teachers’ preparedness, organisation of lesson content, use of teaching and learning materials, and classroom presentation practices. However, inadequate time, limited follow-up, and competing administrative responsibilities constrained the effectiveness of classroom observation. The study concluded that systematic, supportive, and constructive classroom observation was an important instructional supervision practice for improving teachers’ effectiveness in lesson preparation and presentation. The study recommended that school leaders and education authorities should strengthen regular classroom observation, professional feedback, and follow-up mechanisms to promote continuous improvement in teaching practices.

Foundational literacy is central to participation and subsequent learning, yet the instructional routes through which beginning readers encounter print are not equally accessible to all learners. In Tanzania, renewed attention to systematic phonics and early-grade reading has increased the relevance of decodable texts: texts designed to give learners opportunities to apply previously taught grapheme–phoneme correspondences. Their instructional value, however, cannot be assessed only in terms of the linguistic structure of the text. Classroom activities, teacher directions, response requirements, assessment procedures, and available formats can either widen or restrict access. This scoping review maps literature and policy- and curriculum-related evidence concerning decodable or phonics-oriented early reading in Tanzanian primary education and examines the extent to which the evidence engages with accessibility, learner variability, and Universal Design for Learning (UDL). The review follows PRISMA-ScR and considers literature published between 2014 and 2026. The synthesis indicates a plausible pedagogical alignment between controlled text and the development of decoding, while also revealing a major gap in directly tested evidence on inclusive adaptations of decodable materials in Tanzania. Across the mapped literature, accessibility is more often treated as an implementation concern than as a design principle embedded in reading materials from the outset. The review therefore advances the concept of inclusive decodable-text pedagogy, in which systematic phonics is retained while unnecessary sensory, motor, speech, and communication barriers are reduced through multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement. Implications are developed for curriculum design, teacher education, classroom practice, formative assessment, and future research. The central conclusion is that decodability and accessibility should be treated as complementary properties: a text may be linguistically decodable yet still be instructionally inaccessible if participation depends on a single route that is unrelated to the intended literacy skill.

Background: Awareness of youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health services (YFSRHS) is an important starting point for enabling young people to identify and seek appropriate sexual and reproductive health information and care. However, awareness of these services may vary across settings, including higher education institutions. Objective: To determine the level of awareness of YFSRHS among undergraduate students at Saint Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT), Malimbe Campus. Methods: A quantitative descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among undergraduate students at SAUT Malimbe Campus. Data were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. Of 109 questionnaires distributed, 108 completed questionnaires were included in the analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize students’ awareness and reported sources of information. Results: Of the 108 respondents, 96 (88.9%) reported having heard of YFSRHS, while 12 (11.1%) had not. Social media was the most frequently reported source of information (44.0%), followed by friends or peers (41.0%) and health facilities (36.0%). University programmes and posters or advertisements were reported less frequently. Conclusion: Most respondents had heard of YFSRHS, with social media and peer networks serving as prominent information channels. Strengthening accurate information through these channels, alongside university-based communication, may help address the awareness gap among students who remain unreached.

Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are an essential mechanism for collaborative professional learning of teachers. However, evidence remains limited on the specific activities secondary school Biology teachers engage in within PLCs and their perceived contribution to competence-based teaching in Tanzania. This study investigated the PLC activities conducted by secondary school Biology teachers in Dodoma City and their perceived contribution to competence-based teaching practices. Social Constructivist Theory guided the study. A cross-sectional survey design was adopted, and data were collected through a structured questionnaire from 103 Biology teachers in 60 randomly selected public and private secondary schools and analysed using descriptive statistics. The key findings show that teachers engaged mainly in practice-oriented activities: collaborative lesson planning (83.5% of respondents) and peer observation (52.4%) were the only activities reported by more than half of the teachers, whereas setting and reviewing goals (21.4%) and action research and inquiry-based learning (16.5%) were the least practised. Teachers rated the contribution of PLC activities to competence-based teaching as great on all six indicators (M = 3.99–4.18). The strongest contributions were in preparing competence-based lesson plans integrating lessons into real-life situations and involving students in classroom activities, while formative assessment received the lowest, though still high, rating. These findings imply that PLCs benefit learners by helping teachers deliver more learner-centred, contextualised, and participatory lessons, which are the classroom conditions through which competence-based learning and academic performance are improved. The study recommends strengthening inquiry-oriented PLC activities, particularly action research and the collaborative analysis of assessment evidence, so that PLCs can more fully support learners’ achievement.

Folk Development Colleges (FDCs) are intended to equip young people and adults with practical capabilities for productive work, yet little is known about graduates’ transition from training to self-employment. This study explored how vocational training, entrepreneurship education, and life-skills training were perceived to support graduates’ self-employment in two selected FDCs in Mtwara Region, Tanzania. Guided by Human Capital Theory, it used an interpretivist qualitative multiple-case design. Thirty-six participants were selected purposively: 24 graduates, 10 tutors, and two principals. Data were collected through two focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, then analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Participants reported that vocational training developed practical competencies applied in tailoring, agriculture, poultry keeping, welding, food processing and other income-generating activities. Entrepreneurship education strengthened opportunity recognition, business planning, costing, marketing, record-keeping and financial management, while life-skills training supported communication, teamwork, leadership, problem-solving, adaptability and confidence. Experiential learning connected the three training components. However, outdated or insufficient equipment, restricted finance and markets, weak mentorship and industry linkages, limited incubation support and incomplete graduate tracking constrained application. FDC programmes therefore provided complementary preparation for self-employment, but training alone could not ensure enterprise establishment or continuity. Modern resources, sustained practical learning, stronger enterprise-support linkages and systematic graduate tracking are required. As the evidence is context-specific and self-reported, the findings indicate perceived contributions rather than causal effects or verified long-term business sustainability.

Sports betting has expanded across sub-Saharan Africa, increasingly intersecting with young people’s aspirations, technological accessibility, and economic insecurity. Although awareness of gambling-related risks may influence young people’s decisions, recognising such risks does not necessarily lead to cessation of betting. This study explored how young bettors understood betting risks in Shibai Street, Buhongwa Ward, Mwanza, Tanzania. A qualitative cross-sectional study employing ethnographic methods was conducted between July and August 2025. Data were collected from 18 purposively selected active bettors aged 18-29 years through in-depth semi-structured interviews, non-participant observation, and informal conversations. Interviews were conducted in Kiswahili, audio-recorded, transcribed into English, and analysed thematically following Braun and Clarke’s approach. The findings were interpreted using Verstehen, strain, and rational choice perspectives. Participants identified financial loss, difficulty stopping, stress and mental distress, relationship conflict, theft, reduced attention to work or learning, reduced work-seeking, dishonesty, deepening poverty, and loss of personal possessions as important betting-related risks. However, awareness of these risks did not consistently result in withdrawal from betting. Some participants continued because betting provided hope, expectations of quick financial gains, peer influence, and a perceived opportunity to escape poverty. The study concludes that understanding betting risks among youth requires attention to the meanings attached to betting and the economic and social circumstances within which participation occurs. Risk education should therefore be complemented by livelihood opportunities, community support, counselling, and appropriate harm-prevention measures.

Despite the recognized importance of youth participation in agricultural production for food security, Cash crop production and rural development, its engagement among youth in Tanzania remains remarkably low. In Badugu Ward, Bariadi District, for instance, only about 30% of youth participate in agricultural production despite abundant family land. This study explored the influence of land inheritance systems on youth participation in agricultural production in Badugu Ward, Bariadi District in Simiyu Region, Tanzania. Employing a qualitative research approach, the study focuses on the lived experiences of thirty (30) youth participants selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected through interviews, Focus Group Discussions and observation, analyzed thematically following Braun and Clarke's (2006) six-step framework. Findings reveal that decisions are heavily influenced by elders authority, clan norms and gendered inheritance practices, where the credibility of family elders and the rigidity of cultural norms significantly shape youth access to land. Notably, social pressures, particularly from elders and male family members, discourage youth, especially women, from claiming land. Recommendations emphasize enhancing community engagement through consistent communication, education initiatives, and leveraging peer testimonials to foster trust and mitigate uncertainty about land transfer. Overall, the study highlights the complexity of socio-cultural dynamics in agricultural land access and suggests that effective strategies for promoting youth participation must address these collective influences.

علی‌رغم اهمیت شناخته‌شده مشارکت جوانان در تولید کشاورزی برای امنیت غذایی، تولید محصولات زراعی پول‌ساز و توسعه روستایی، مشارکت جوانان در تانزانیا به‌طور قابل‌توجهی پایین است. برای نمونه، در واد بدوگو، منطقه باریادی، تنها حدود ۳۰٪ از جوانان در تولید کشاورزی مشارکت دارند، با وجود زمین‌های خانوادگی فراوان. این پژوهش تأثیر سیستم‌های ارث‌بری زمین بر مشارکت جوانان در تولید کشاورزی را در واد بدوگو، منطقه باریادی، در منطقه سیمییو، تانزانیا بررسی کرد. این مطالعه با به‌کارگیری رویکرد پژوهش کیفی، بر تجربیات زیسته سی (۳۰) شرکت‌کننده جوان که از طریق نمونه‌گیری هدفمند انتخاب شده‌اند، تمرکز دارد. داده‌ها از طریق مصاحبه، بحث‌های گروهی متمرکز و مشاهده جمع‌آوری و با دنبال کردن چارچوب شش‌مرحله‌ای براون و کلارک (۲۰۰۶) به‌صورت تماتیک تحلیل شدند. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که تصمیم‌گیری‌ها به‌شدت تحت تأثیر اقتدار بزرگان، هنج‌های قومی و شیوه‌های ارث‌بری جنسیت‌محور است، جایی که اعتبار بزرگان خانواده و انعطاف‌ناپذیری هنج‌های فرهنگی به‌طور قابل‌توجهی دسترسی جوانان به زمین را شکل می‌دهند. به‌طور قابل‌توجهی، فشارهای اجتماعی، به‌ویژه از سوی بزرگان و اعضای مرد خانواده، از جوانان، به‌ویژه زنان، برای مطالبه زمین باز می‌دارد. توصیه‌ها بر افزایش مشارکت جامعه از طریق ارتباطات مستمر، ابتکارات آموزشی و بهره‌گیری از گواهی‌های همتایان برای تقویت اعتماد و کاهش عدم قطعیت درباره انتقال زمین تأکید دارند. در مجموع، این مطالعه پیچیدگی پویایی‌های اجتماعی-فرهنگی در دسترسی به زمین‌های کشاورزی را برجسته می‌کند و پیشنهاد می‌دهد که راهبردهای مؤثر برای ترویج مشارکت جوانان باید این تأثیرات جمعی را مورد توجه قرار دهد.

This study assessed the extent of instructional supervision practices among head teachers in public primary schools in Kibondo District, Tanzania. The study was guided by the positivist research paradigm and employed a mixed-methods approach using a convergent parallel research design. A total of 294 participants were involved in the study, comprising 12 head teachers, 272 primary school teachers, 9 Ward Education Officers (WEOs), and 1 District Education Officer (DEO). Head teachers, WEOs, and the DEO were selected using purposive sampling, while primary school teachers were selected through simple random sampling. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires administered to teachers, while qualitative data were obtained through interviews with head teachers, WEOs, and the DEO. Documentary review was also used to examine supervision schedules, classroom-observation records, lesson-plan monitoring records, and teachers’ feedback records. Quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) through descriptive statistics, particularly means and standard deviations, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that instructional supervision practices were generally implemented at low to moderate levels. Maintaining written supervision records received the highest rating (M = 2.80, SD = 1.40), followed by organising school-based professional development (M = 2.65, SD = 1.40) and encouraging peer observation and mentoring (M = 2.61, SD = 1.44). In contrast, classroom-focused activities recorded relatively lower ratings, including reviewing teachers’ schemes of work (M = 2.26, SD = 1.51), classroom observation (M = 2.27, SD = 1.48), checking lesson plans (M = 2.29, SD = 1.47), and monitoring continuous assessment practices (M = 2.29, SD = 1.53). Qualitative and documentary evidence indicated that competing administrative responsibilities, staffing constraints, and other school-level demands constrained the consistent implementation of classroom-focused supervision. The study concludes that instructional supervision was implemented unevenly, with relatively greater emphasis on administrative documentation and professional development activities than on direct classroom-focused supervision. The study recommends strengthening head teachers’ instructional leadership competencies, reducing competing administrative workloads, addressing staffing constraints, and establishing systematic mechanisms for regular classroom observation, constructive feedback, professional development, and follow-up of instructional practices.

This study examined the contribution of service delivery to students’ enrolment in public secondary schools in Busega District, Tanzania. The study was guided by the need to understand how the quality and responsiveness of educational services influence parents’ decisions to enroll their children and students’ retention in public secondary schools. A mixed-methods approach with a predominantly quantitative orientation and an explanatory research design was employed. The study targeted 655 respondents from 30 public secondary schools, from whom a sample of 104 respondents was selected, comprising 85 teachers, 6 heads of schools, 6 Ward Education Officers, 1 District Education Officer, and 6 school board chairpersons. Data were collected using questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and observation. Validity was established through expert and supervisor review, while reliability was tested using Cronbach’s Alpha, which yielded a coefficient of 0.916 for 20 questionnaire items. Quantitative data were analysed using frequencies and percentages through SPSS version 26, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The results showed that service delivery played an important role in contributing to student enrolment. More specifically, the majority of teachers were in agreement or strongly in agreement that effective academic service delivery contributed to increased enrolment. Moreover, they noted that quality teaching and learning contributed to the decision making of parents on enrolment of their children and that educational support services in time contributed to enrolment. Also, teachers noted that effective administrative services attracted many students and that effective service delivery generally contributed to student enrolment and retention. Another finding from open-ended questions showed that effective school-community relations and sufficient learning facilities played an important role in student enrolment. The study concluded that quality, timely, and responsive service delivery strengthened school reputation, parental confidence, students’ retention, and enrolment. The study recommends that Busega District Council and school authorities improve teaching and learning services, strengthen students’ support and administrative systems, enhance school-community partnerships, provide adequate infrastructure, and maintain safe and supportive learning environments to increase students’ enrolment in public secondary schools

This study explored collaborative lesson planning practices as part of lesson study-based supervision in selected public primary schools in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. The study was guided by Social Constructivist Theory and employed a qualitative case study design, with Bagamoyo District as the bounded case and four selected public primary schools as embedded units of analysis. A total of 34 participants, comprising 28 classroom teachers, four head teachers, and two Ward Education Officers, were purposively selected. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, observation, and document analysis and were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that collaborative lesson planning was widely practiced in the selected schools through joint preparation of lesson plans, discussion of learning objectives and teaching strategies, development of teaching aids, and sharing of instructional knowledge and resources. Teachers reported that these practices enhanced professional learning, teaching confidence, pedagogical knowledge, and collective problem-solving. However, the implementation of collaborative lesson planning was constrained by heavy teaching workloads, limited time, inadequate instructional resources, and competing administrative responsibilities. The study concludes that collaborative lesson planning constitutes an important foundation of lesson study-based supervision and provides teachers with opportunities for continuous professional learning and improvement of instructional practice. The study recommends that school leaders and education authorities allocate adequate time and resources for collaborative lesson planning, strengthen institutional support, and minimise competing responsibilities that interfere with regular lesson study activities

Across Sub-Saharan Africa, persistent misalignment between education systems and labour market structures has constrained the translation of educational expansion into equitable employment outcomes. In response to graduate unemployment and skills mismatch, Tanzania introduced the National Framework for Academia-Industry Collaboration in Skills Development and Employability in 2026 to institutionalize governance coordination, strengthen work-based learning, and enhance labour market responsiveness. While the framework adopts a demand-driven orientation, the extent to which it embeds structural inclusion mechanisms remains insufficiently examined. This paper undertakes a systematic qualitative policy review of the framework to interrogate its governance architecture, demand-alignment logic, and inclusion provisions. Guided by systems theory, human capital perspectives, and intersectionality frameworks, the analysis evaluates the framework against international models of skills governance and labour inclusion. Findings indicate that the framework demonstrates structural coherence in institutional coordination and industry engagement; however, it lacks explicit disability-disaggregated labour data systems, employer accommodation financing mechanisms, and intersectional monitoring indicators necessary to prevent the reproduction of labour market inequalities. This study contributes to the literature by integrating systems theory with intersectionality-informed disability studies to evaluate skills governance beyond economic responsiveness alone. The paper argues that demand-driven skills development, when detached from legally embedded inclusion safeguards and disability-responsive financing instruments, risks reinforcing gendered and disability-based disparities in employment outcomes. It concludes that Tanzania’s framework constitutes a significant policy reform platform but requires structural integration of inclusive governance mechanisms to ensure equitable participation and sustainable employability in the evolving labour market. It concludes that Tanzania's framework provides a strong foundation for reform but should be strengthened through disability-responsive labour market information systems, employer accommodation incentives, accessible work-based learning standards, and intersectional accountability mechanisms to ensure inclusive and sustainable skills development.

در سراسر منطقه جنوب صحرای آفریقا، ناهماهنگی مستمر میان نظام‌های آموزشی و ساختارهای بازار کار، تبدیل گسترش آموزش به پیامدهای اشتغال عادلانه را محدود کرده است. در واکنش به بیکاری فارغ‌التحصیلان و عدم تطابق مهارت‌ها، تانزانیا در سال 2026 چارچوب ملی همکاری دانشگاه و صنعت در توسعه مهارت‌ها و اشتغال‌پذیری را به منظور نهادینه‌سازی هماهنگی حکمرانی، تقویت یادگیری مبتنی بر کار و افزایش پاسخگویی به بازار کار معرفی کرد. اگرچه این چارچوب رویکردی مبتنی بر تقاضا اتخاذ کرده است، میزان تعبیه سازوکارهای شمول ساختاری در آن به اندازه کافی مورد بررسی قرار نگرفته است. این مقاله با انجام یک مرور نظام‌مند کیفی سیاستی از این چارچوب، به بررسی معماری حکمرانی، منطق تطابق با تقاضا و مفاد شمول آن می‌پردازد. تحلیل حاضر با بهره‌گیری از نظریه سیستم‌ها، دیدگاه‌های سرمایه انسانی و چارچوب‌های تقاطع‌مندی، این چارچوب را در مقایسه با مدل‌های بین‌المللی حکمرانی مهارت‌ها و شمول بازار کار ارزیابی می‌کند. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که این چارچوب از انسجام ساختاری در هماهنگی نهادی و مشارکت صنعت برخوردار است؛ با این حال، فاقد نظام‌های داده بازار کار تفکیک‌شده بر اساس معلولیت، سازوکارهای تأمین مالی برای تطبیق کارفرمایان و شاخص‌های پایش تقاطع‌مند است که برای جلوگیری از بازتولید نابرابری‌های بازار کار ضروری هستند. این مطالعه با ادغام نظریه سیستم‌ها و مطالعات معلولیت مبتنی بر تقاطع‌مندی، به ادبیات موجود در ارزیابی حکمرانی مهارت‌ها فراتر از صرفاً پاسخگویی اقتصادی می‌افزاید. مقاله استدلال می‌کند که توسعه مهارت‌های مبتنی بر تقاضا، در صورت فقدان تضمین‌های قانونی شمول و ابزارهای مالی پاسخگو به معلولیت، خطر تقویت نابرابری‌های جنسیتی و مبتنی بر معلولیت در پیامدهای اشتغال را به همراه دارد. در پایان نتیجه‌گیری می‌شود که چارچوب تانزانیا بستری مهم برای اصلاحات سیاستی فراهم می‌کند، اما برای تضمین مشارکت عادلانه و اشتغال‌پذیری پایدار در بازار کار در حال تحول، نیازمند ادغام ساختاری سازوکارهای حکمرانی فراگیر است. همچنین تأکید می‌شود که چارچوب تانزانیا پایه‌ای قوی برای اصلاحات فراهم می‌آورد، اما باید از طریق نظام‌های اطلاعات بازار کار پاسخگو به معلولیت، مشوق‌های تطبیق کارفرمایان، استانداردهای یادگیری مبتنی بر کار قابل دسترس و سازوکارهای پاسخگویی تقاطع‌مند تقویت شود تا توسعه مهارت‌ها به صورت فراگیر و پایدار تضمین گردد.

This qualitative phenomenological study examines the perspectives of teachers, school heads, and District Education Officers on implementing inclusive education for students with disabilities in Tanzanian secondary schools. Data were generated through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with 24 participants from inclusive secondary schools. Findings show apparent differences between teachers trained in special needs education and those without such training, particularly in confidence, classroom practices, and attitudes toward inclusion. Key barriers included inadequate resources, limited professional training, weak parental involvement, and systemic policy constraints. The study highlights the need for sustained teacher professional development, harmonised communication systems, and stronger institutional support to enhance inclusive education practice in Tanzania.

این پژوهش کیفی با رویکرد پدیدارشناسی به بررسی دیدگاه‌های معلمان، مدیران مدارس و افسران آموزش منطقه‌ای درباره اجرای آموزش فراگیر برای دانش‌آموزان دارای معلولیت در مدارس متوسطه تانزانیا می‌پردازد. داده‌ها از طریق مصاحبه‌های عمیق و بحث‌های گروهی متمرکز با ۲۴ شرکت‌کننده از مدارس متوسطه فراگیر گردآوری شده‌اند. یافته‌ها نشان‌دهنده تفاوت‌های آشکار میان معلمانی است که در آموزش نیازهای ویژه تحصیل کرده‌اند و آن‌هایی که چنین آموزشی ندیده‌اند، به‌ویژه از نظر اعتماد به نفس، شیوه‌های تدریس در کلاس و نگرش نسبت به فراگیرسازی. موانع اصلی شامل منابع ناکافی، آموزش حرفه‌ای محدود، مشارکت ضعیف والدین و محدودیت‌های سیاستی نظام‌مند بود. این مطالعه بر ضرورت توسعه حرفه‌ای مستمر معلمان، نظام‌های ارتباطی هماهنگ و حمایت نهادی قوی‌تر برای ارتقای اجرای آموزش فراگیر در تانزانیا تأکید می‌کند.

Inclusive pedagogy, a framework for designing learning for all learners, remains under-examined in Tanzanian pre-primary contexts . This qualitative study investigates teachers’ perceptions of inclusive pedagogy implementation for literacy acquisition and challenges they encounter in urban and peri-urban schools. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 teachers across 16 schools . Thematic analysis revealed four key themes: teaching experience, understanding of inclusive pedagogy, identifying children with diverse needs, and adapting literacy lessons. Five significant challenges emerged: curriculum constraints, environmental limitations, resource scarcity, professional development gaps, and inadequate institutional support . Although teachers expressed positive perceptions of inclusion, they lacked the pedagogical skills and training required for effective implementation of inclusive pedagogy. Structural and contextual challenges affected the translation of policy into classroom practice. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted in-service training, curriculum adjustments, and stronger institutional support, underscoring a persistent gap between inclusive education policy and the pedagogical capacity to enact it.

پداگوژی فراگیر، که چارچوبی برای طراحی یادگیری برای همه فراگیران است، در زمینه‌های پیش‌دبستانی تانزانیا کمتر مورد بررسی قرار گرفته‌است. این مطالعه کیفی به بررسی ادراک معلمان از اجرای پداگوژی فراگیر برای کسب سواد و چالش‌هایی که در مدارس شهری و حاشیه‌شهری با آن مواجه هستند، می‌پردازد. مصاحبه‌های نیمه‌ساختاریافته با ۳۰ معلم در ۱۶ مدرسه انجام شد. تحلیل تماتیک چهار مضمون کلیدی را آشکار ساخت: تجربه تدریس، درک پداگوژی فراگیر، شناسایی کودکان با نیازهای متنوع، و سازگار کردن درس‌های سوادآموزی. پنج چالش مهم شناسایی شد: محدودیت‌های برنامه درسی، محدودیت‌های محیطی، کمبود منابع، خلأهای توسعه حرفه‌ای، و حمایت نهادی ناکافی. اگرچه معلمان نگرش مثبتی نسبت به فراگیر بودن ابراز کردند، اما مهارت‌های پداگوژیک و آموزش لازم برای اجرای مؤثر پداگوژی فراگیر را نداشتند. چالش‌های ساختاری و زمینه‌ای بر ترجمه سیاست به عمل کلاسی تأثیر گذاشت. این یافته‌ها بر نیاز فوری به آموزش ضمن خدمت هدفمند، تعدیل برنامه درسی و تقویت حمایت نهادی تأکید می‌کند و شکاف مداوم میان سیاست آموزش فراگیر و ظرفیت پداگوژیک برای اجرای آن را برجسته می‌سازد.

In Tanzania, the persistent challenge of low academic achievement in secondary schools has been linked to underperforming teachers, prompting a need to investigate the organisational factors that predict educator effectiveness. This study examines whether leadership support from heads of schools, particularly decision-making involvement, recognition, role modelling, and managerial support, predicts teachers' work performance. Using an explanatory research design and quantitative approach, data were collected from 380 teachers in Iringa and Njombe regions, with 378 valid responses analysed. Regression analysis using SPSS version 27 assessed the strength and significance of relationships between leadership support and teacher performance. Findings revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between overall leadership support and teacher performance. Among the individual leadership dimensions, involvement in decision-making was the strongest predictor, enhancing teachers' sense of ownership and commitment. Although recognition and role modelling showed positive contributions, they were not individually statistically significant. The study concludes that supportive school leadership is significantly associated with improved teacher performance. It recommends a holistic leadership-support framework, prioritising participatory decision-making, to strengthen teacher effectiveness, classroom productivity, educational outcomes, and overall school effectiveness.

در تانزانیا، چالش مداوم دستاورد تحصیلی پایین در مدارس متوسطه به معلمان کم‌کارایی نسبت داده شده است و این امر نیاز به بررسی عوامل سازمانی پیش‌بینی‌کننده اثربخشی معلمان را ایجاد کرده است. این پژوهش بررسی می‌کند که آیا حمایت رهبری از سوی مدیران مدارس، به‌ویژه مشارکت در تصمیم‌گیری، شناسایی، الگو بودن و حمایت مدیریتی، عملکرد شغلی معلمان را پیش‌بینی می‌کند یا خیر. با استفاده از طرح پژوهش تبیینی و رویکرد کمی، داده‌ها از ۳۸۰ معلم در مناطق Iringa و Njombe گردآوری شد و ۳۷۸ پاسخ معتبر مورد تحلیل قرار گرفت. تحلیل رگرسیون با استفاده از نرم‌افزار SPSS نسخه ۲۷ برای ارزیابی قدرت و معناداری روابط بین حمایت رهبری و عملکرد معلمان به‌کار رفت. یافته‌ها نشان داد که بین حمایت کلی رهبری و عملکرد معلمان رابطه مثبت معنادار آماری وجود دارد. در میان ابعاد فردی رهبری، مشارکت در تصمیم‌گیری قوی‌ترین پیش‌بینی‌کننده بود و حس مالکیت و تعهد معلمان را افزایش داد. اگرچه شناسایی و الگو بودن نیز سهم مثبتی داشتند، اما به‌طور فردی از لحاظ آماری معنادار نبودند. این مطالعه نتیجه می‌گیرد که رهبری حمایتی مدرسه به‌طور معناداری با بهبود عملکرد معلمان مرتبط است. چارچوبی جامع برای حمایت رهبری با اولویت دادن به تصمیم‌گیری مشارکتی توصیه می‌شود تا اثربخشی معلمان، بهره‌وری کلاس درس، نتایج آموزشی و اثربخشی کلی مدرسه تقویت شود.

Research paradigms and approaches constitute the philosophical and methodological foundations of scholarly inquiry, shaping how researchers conceptualise problems, generate knowledge, and select appropriate methods; however, their utilisation in postgraduate theses and dissertations remains insufficiently examined in many African universities, including Tanzania. This study examined the level of utilisation of educational research paradigms and approaches in the development of theses and dissertations among postgraduate students at a selected university in Tanzania. Data spanning over four decades between 1985 and 2023 were generated through review of theses and dissertations found in university library. To determine the prevalence and distribution of research paradigms and approaches, a content analysis of theses and dissertations was conducted using descriptive statistics. Findings revealed varying degrees of utilisation of research paradigms and approaches among postgraduates in theses and dissertations development. Notably, positivism has limited application, while interpretivism and pragmatism are widely used. However, newer paradigms saw limited use. Key Words: research paradigm, research methods, postgraduate students, educational research, theses, dissertations, Tanzania.

پارادایم‌ها و رویکردهای پژوهشی، بنیان‌های فلسفی و روش‌شناختی پژوهش علمی را تشکیل می‌دهند و نحوه مفهوم‌سازی مسائل، تولید دانش و انتخاب روش‌های مناسب توسط پژوهشگران را شکل می‌دهند؛ با این حال، استفاده از آن‌ها در پایان‌نامه‌ها و رساله‌های تحصیلات تکمیلی در بسیاری از دانشگاه‌های آفریقایی، از جمله تانزانیا، به اندازه کافی مورد بررسی قرار نگرفته‌است. این پژوهش میزان استفاده از پارادایم‌ها و رویکردهای پژوهش آموزشی در تدوین پایان‌نامه‌ها و رساله‌ها توسط دانشجویان تحصیلات تکمیلی در یک دانشگاه منتخب در تانزانیا را بررسی کرده‌است. داده‌هایی که بازه زمانی بیش از چهار دهه از سال ۱۹۸۵ تا ۲۰۲۳ را در بر می‌گیرد، از طریق مرور پایان‌نامه‌ها و رساله‌های موجود در کتابخانه دانشگاه گردآوری شد. به‌منظور تعیین شیوع و توزیع پارادایم‌ها و رویکردهای پژوهشی، تحلیل محتوای پایان‌نامه‌ها و رساله‌ها با استفاده از آمار توصیفی انجام شد. یافته‌ها نشان داد که میزان استفاده از پارادایم‌ها و رویکردهای پژوهشی در تدوین پایان‌نامه‌ها و رساله‌های تحصیلات تکمیلی متفاوت است. به‌ویژه، کاربرد پوزیتیویسم محدود بوده، در حالی که تفسیرگرایی و عمل‌گرایی به طور گسترده مورد استفاده قرار گرفته‌اند. با این حال، پارادایم‌های جدیدتر کاربرد محدودی داشته‌اند.

This study responds to limited empirical research on the relationship between inclusive education, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and teacher education in southern Africa. While these educational agendas are somehow linked in policy discourse, there remains little evidence showing how teacher educators can integrate inclusivity and sustainability in practice. This study explored how teacher educators in Malawi, Tanzania and Eswatini mainstreamed inclusive education through UNESCO's Sustainability Starts with Teachers (SST) programme and its ESD Change Projects. Guided by Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, the research adopted a qualitative formative interventionist approach using a nested case study design. The findings revealed that teacher educators developed inclusive pedagogical proficiency through collaborative and contextually grounded Change Projects that addressed contradictions between inclusivity, sustainability and teacher education practice. This study found that pedagogical proficiency was strengthened through engaged practice, collaborative reflection and institutional learning processes. Drawing from these findings, this article advances the Sustainable Inclusive Pedagogical Proficiency Process (SIP3) model as a contextually grounded southern African contribution for understanding and operationalising inclusive pedagogical proficiency in teacher education. The SIP3 model is a practice-research and professional development framework for strengthening inclusive and sustainable teacher education practices.

این مطالعه در پاسخ به کمبود پژوهش‌های تجربی درباره رابطه بین آموزش فراگیر، آموزش برای توسعه پایدار (ESD) و تربیت معلم در جنوب آفریقا انجام شده است. اگرچه این دستورکارهای آموزشی تا حدی در گفتمان سیاست‌گذاری به هم مرتبط هستند، اما شواهد اندکی وجود دارد که نشان دهد مدرسان معلمان چگونه می‌توانند فراگیری و پایداری را در عمل ادغام کنند. این پژوهش بررسی کرد که چگونه مدرسان معلمان در کشورهای مالاوی، تانزانیا و اسواتینی آموزش فراگیر را از طریق برنامه «پایداری از معلمان آغاز می‌شود» (SST) یونسکو و پروژه‌های تغییر مرتبط با آموزش برای توسعه پایدار، به جریان اصلی تبدیل کردند. این پژوهش با راهنمایی نظریه سامانه‌های زیستی-بوم‌شناختی برونفنبرنر و نظریه جامعه‌فرهنگی ویگوتسکی، رویکرد کیفی مداخله‌ای-تکوینی را با استفاده از طرح مطالعه موردی تو در تو اتخاذ کرد. یافته‌ها نشان داد که مدرسان معلمان از طریق پروژه‌های تغییر مشارکتی و مبتنی بر زمینه که به تناقضات میان فراگیری، پایداری و عمل تربیت معلم می‌پرداختند، مهارت پداگوژیک فراگیر را توسعه دادند. این مطالعه دریافت که مهارت پداگوژیک از طریق عمل مشارکتی، بازتاب جمعی و فرایندهای یادگیری نهادی تقویت می‌شود. بر اساس این یافته‌ها، این مقاله الگوی فرایند مهارت‌آموزی پداگوژیک فراگیر پایدار (SIP3) را به عنوان یک مشارکت مبتنی بر زمینه از جنوب آفریقا برای فهم و عملیاتی‌سازی مهارت پداگوژیک فراگیر در تربیت معلم مطرح می‌کند. الگوی SIP3 یک چارچوب پژوهش-عمل و توسعه حرفه‌ای برای تقویت شیوه‌های تربیت معلم فراگیر و پایدار است.

Teacher-student relationships play a crucial role in students' learning as learning is inherently a social process. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study explored students' perspectives on and experiences with teachers' relatedness support in enhancing their learning. The study employed a qualitative interpretive descriptive approach. Data were collected through focus group discussions with twenty-eight (N = 28) students from four secondary schools in Iringa Municipality and were analysed thematically. Findings revealed inadequate teachers' relatedness support, characterised by a limited understanding of students' behaviours and individual needs, unresponsiveness, favouritism, harassment, and breaches of confidentiality of students' issues. Consistent with SDT, an unfulfilled need for relatedness undermined students' general well-being, resulting in reduced interest in school, decreased motivation and engagement in learning, absenteeism, and school dropout. The study recommends strengthening teachers' relational competencies, responsiveness and safe school environments to foster students’ well-being and effective learning.

روابط معلم و دانش‌آموز نقش اساسی در یادگیری دانش‌آموزان ایفا می‌کند، چرا که یادگیری ذاتاً فرایندی اجتماعی است. این پژوهش با بهره‌گیری از نظریه خودتعیین‌گری (SDT)، به بررسی دیدگاه‌ها و تجارب دانش‌آموزان درباره حمایت معلمان از ارتباط‌مندی و نقش آن در ارتقای یادگیری پرداخت. این مطالعه با رویکرد کیفی توصیفی-تفسیری انجام شد. داده‌ها از طریق بحث‌های گروهی متمرکز با بیست‌وهشت (N = ۲۸) دانش‌آموز از چهار مدرسه متوسطه در شهرداری ایرینگا گردآوری و به شیوه تحلیل تماتیک بررسی شد. یافته‌ها نشان داد که حمایت معلمان از ارتباط‌مندی ناکافی است و این امر با درک محدود از رفتارها و نیازهای فردی دانش‌آموزان، عدم پاسخگویی، جانبداری، آزار و اذیت و نقض محرمانگی مسائل دانش‌آموزان مشخص می‌شود. مطابق با نظریه SDT، ارضا نشدن نیاز به ارتباط‌مندی به تضعیف بهزیستی کلی دانش‌آموزان منجر شده و پیامدهایی چون کاهش علاقه به مدرسه، کاهش انگیزش و مشارکت در یادگیری، غیبت و ترک تحصیل را به دنبال داشته است. این پژوهش تقویت شایستگی‌های ارتباطی معلمان، افزایش پاسخگویی و ایجاد محیط‌های مدرسه‌ای ایمن را برای ارتقای بهزیستی و یادگیری مؤثر دانش‌آموزان توصیه می‌کند.

Introduction Many people who have experienced trauma feel that PTSD criteria do not describe their experiences. They report culturally specific symptoms, in our new theory referred to as Cultural Scripts of Trauma, yet no study has systematically mapped these experiences or developed tools to measure them. Objectives This study aims to map cultural scripts of trauma suffering and to develop and validate the Cultural Scripts of Trauma Inventory (CSTI) across Eastern African countries, including Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. Methods A qualitative study involving 115 participants across nine focus groups of trauma survivors and experts was conducted to map the main cultural scripts of trauma experiences and generate initial pool of items. This was followed by a quantitative validation study involving 1,208 participants from Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. In an online survey, participants completed the pre-CSTI and additional measures for convergent and divergent validity, such as the International Trauma Questionnaire, Clinical Aspects of Historical Trauma, Purpose in Life Questionnaire, Subjective Vitality, and General Self-Efficacy. Results The results yield 71 Cultural Scripts of Trauma Sufferings (CSTs). The confirmatory factor analysis confirms 15 most relevant CSTs regrouped in five factors such as cognitive, body related, frame of mind, meaning disruption and family stress demonstrating excellent model fit. Those constitute 15 item-inventory that showed strong overall reliability and validity. Additionally, the model exhibited configural, metric, and partial scalar invariance, confirming its consistency across various groups. Conclusion This study is advancing culturally informed diagnosis and treatment of post traumatic sequelae by identification of culturally specific post trauma suffering and development and validation of CSTI in East African countries. It provides clinicians and researchers with a resource to adopt a model of beyond and including PTSD by offering a deeper understanding of post-traumatic stress in diverse cultural contexts.

مقدمه: بسیاری از افرادی که تجربه آسیب روانی داشته‌اند، احساس می‌کنند ملاک‌های اختلال استرس پس از سانحه (PTSD) تجارب آن‌ها را توصیف نمی‌کند. آن‌ها نشانه‌های خاص فرهنگی را گزارش می‌کنند که در نظریه جدید ما به عنوان «الگوهای فرهنگی آسیب روانی» نامیده می‌شود، اما تاکنون هیچ مطالعه‌ای به طور نظام‌مند این تجارب را ترسیم نکرده یا ابزارهایی برای سنجش آن‌ها توسعه نداده است. اهداف: هدف این پژوهش، ترسیم الگوهای فرهنگی رنج آسیب روانی و توسعه و اعتباریابی ابزار سنجهٔ الگوهای فرهنگی آسیب روانی (CSTI) در کشورهای شرق آفریقا از جمله رواندا، اوگاندا، تانزانیا و کنیا است. روش‌ها: مطالعه‌ای کیفی با مشارکت ۱۱۵ نفر در قالب ۹ گروه متمرکز از بازماندگان آسیب و خبرگان به منظور ترسیم الگوهای اصلی تجارب آسیب روانی و تولید بانک اولیه گویه‌ها انجام شد. سپس مطالعه‌ای کمی جهت اعتباریابی با مشارکت ۱۲۰۸ نفر از رواندا، اوگاندا، تانزانیا و کنیا صورت گرفت. در یک نظرسنجی آنلاین، شرکت‌کنندگان نسخه اولیه CSTI و ابزارهای تکمیلی برای سنجش روایی همگرا و واگرا، از جمله پرسشنامه بین‌المللی آسیب روانی، جنبه‌های بالینی آسیب تاریخی، پرسشنامه هدفمندی در زندگی، سرزندگی ذهنی و خودکارآمدی عمومی را تکمیل کردند. نتایج: نتایج منجر به شناسایی ۷۱ الگوی فرهنگی رنج آسیب روانی (CST) شد. تحلیل عاملی تأییدی، ۱۵ الگوی فرهنگی مهم‌تر را در پنج عامل شامل شناختی، بدنی، وضعیت ذهنی، اختلال معنایی و استرس خانوادگی با برازش عالی مدل تأیید کرد. این عوامل، ابزار ۱۵ گویه‌ای را تشکیل می‌دهند که از پایایی و روایی کلی قوی برخوردار است. افزون بر این، مدل از نظر پیکربندی، سنجش و بخشی از مقیاس، ناوریانس را نشان داد و ثبات آن را در گروه‌های مختلف تأیید کرد. نتیجه‌گیری: این مطالعه با شناسایی رنج‌های خاص فرهنگی پس از آسیب و توسعه و اعتباریابی CSTI در کشورهای شرق آفریقا، به تشخیص و درمان مبتنی بر فرهنگ پیامدهای پس از آسیب کمک می‌کند. این ابزار منبعی برای درمانگران و پژوهشگران فراهم می‌کند تا مدلی فراتر و شامل PTSD را با درک عمیق‌تر از استرس پس از سانحه در زمینه‌های فرهنگی متنوع اتخاذ کنند.